Quantitative Amino Acid Requirements of Penaeid Shrimp
Successful studies have recently been completed on determining the amino acid requirements of penaeid shrimp Table 23.12 . Previous attempts to quantify the requirements had resulted in only limited success Deshimaru and Kuroki, 1974 Akiyama, 1986 . This was due primarily to the lack of a water stable diet that would resist leaching while being slowly consumed by the shrimp. Chen et al. 1992 were able to determine the arginine requirement by using a microencapsulated diet. Fox et a I. 1995...
Lysinearginine antagonism
The lysine-arginine antagonism provides a distinctive, but not unique, example of how one amino acid may reduce the efficiency of utilization of another. The results of one such study D'Mello and Lewis, 1970 are shown in Table 14.2. A basal diet marginally deficient in arginine but adequate in lysine was used. Addition of excess lysine to this basal diet to give concentrations of 13.5, 16.0 and 18.5 g kg-1, progressively reduced growth performance and enhanced the quantity of arginine required...
Contributors
Atasoglu, C. Rowett Research Institute, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB21 9SB, UK. Present address Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, 17100 Canakkale, Turkey Baker, D.H. Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, 132 Animal Sciences Laboratory, 1207 West Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801, USA Baldwin, R.L. Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8521, USA Bequette, B.J. Department of Animal...
Optimization of feed formulation
All diets for poultry and swine are today formulated to match the amino acid requirement of the species to achieve optimal growth and feed conversion. To do this the nutritionist needs reliable data on the amino acid composition of his feed raw materials. If NIR amino acid calibrations are available any quality fluctuations can be corrected by supplementation of amino acids. Due to the complexity and high cost of the technique, chromatographic amino acid analysis is usually not available to the...
Effects of Dietary Amino Acids on Carcass Composition
The effects of varying dietary concentrations of amino acids on body composition of growing poultry are imperfectly documented. However, the results of three studies indicated striking effects of dietary isoleucine and lysine on fat content of 3-week-old broiler chicks. Contrasting effects were observed, depending on the degree of deficiency of either amino acid Figs 14.18 and 14.19 . At very low levels of isoleucine or lysine, fat content was relatively low but this increased progressively...
Felinine
Felinine acid is a sulphur-containing amino acid present in the urine of certain members of the Felidae family including the domestic cat. Discovered by Datta and Harris 1951 , 24 h felinine excretion levels of entire male cats have been reported to be 25 mg kg-1 body weight whereas castrated male, entire female and spayed female cats excrete 8.5, 7.5 and 4.1 mg kg-1 body weight Hendriks et al., 1995 . Precursors of felinine synthesis were recently shown to include cysteine and methionine with...
Urea breakdown
Ammonia is formed extremely rapidly from the breakdown of urea in the rumen and can then be used for amino acid synthesis. This activity enables ruminants to utilize urea entering the rumen either with the feed Virtanen, 1966 Salter et al., 1979 Roffler and Satter, 1975 , or endogenous salivary secretion, or by diffusion across the rumen wall Kennedy and Milligan, 1980 . The enzyme mechanism is a simple hydrolysis by urease, which can be inhibited in vitro by acetohydroxamic acid Makkar et al.,...
Relationship of Methionine with Other Methyl Donors
In addition to its primary function as a constituent of proteins, methionine can be converted into S-adenosylmethionine and S-adenosylhomocysteine, as illustrated in Fig. 8.3. These reactions release a methyl group that is used in several metabolic processes, primarily DNA methylation and synthesis of carnitine from lysine, adrenaline from noradrenaline, and creatine from guanidine acetate Simon, 1999 . Thus, methionine is sometimes referred to as a 'methyl donor'. To regenerate methionine from...
Sex
The responses of male and female broilers to available lysine concentrations in the diet have been published by Thomas et al. 1977 . Viewed in terms of dietary concentrations of total lysine, two growth response curves are apparent Fig. 14.6 implying genuine differences in lysine utilization between males and females. Indeed, having arrived at this conclusion, Thomas et al. 1977 developed two regression equations for lysine requirements of male and female broilers. However, when the responses...
Phenylalanine
A relationship similar to that presented for methionine and cystine exists for phenylalanine and tyrosine, two important aromatic amino acids. Tyrosine is considered dispensable because it can be synthesized by the fish from the indispensable amino acid phenylalanine. If tyrosine is included in the diet, it reduces the amount of phenylalanine needed in the diet. Thus, fish have a total aromatic amino acid requirement. The phenylalanine or total aromatic amino acid requirement values for fish...
Requirement estimation from doseresponse experiments an empirical approach
The 'requirement' of an animal for a nutrient may be thought of as a point on a dose-response curve relating the level of intake of that nutrient and some measure of productivity of the animal or some indicator of metabolism. In the case of protein the 'requirement' is best considered as the requirement for individual amino acids rather than for the protein as a whole. Although accurate estimates of the amino acid requirements for growth in the pig are necessary for efficient dietary...
AE ratios and the ideal protein concept
Arai 1981 used A E ratios essential amino acid content total essential amino acid content including cystine and tyrosine x 1000 of whole body coho salmon fry to formulate test diets for this fish. Fish fed casein diets supplemented with amino acids to simulate the A E ratios of whole body tissue showed much improved growth and feed efficiency. Ogata et al. 1983 used A E ratios based on amino acid composition data from cherry salmon Oncorhynchus masou to design test diets for cherry salmon and...
Amino acids for mammary gland growth
The mammary glands are the key tissue organ that cannot be ignored in discussing lactating sows because of their metabolic importance in synthesizing and secreting milk that is directly related to litter weight gain and litter weaning weight. Mammary glands take up amino acids from the bloodstream, synthesize milk proteins and secrete milk to nursing pigs. Understanding the metabolism and biology of mammary glands is, therefore, a crucial initial point for improving reproductive performance of...
Threonine in broilers
For the essential amino acid threonine, there are not as much data available for response modelling. On the other hand, the commercial interest has increased considerably due to the availability of larger quantities of industrial L-threonine. Therefore, Fig. 25.7 displays another set of three experiments combined on a relative scale. Again, responses are non-linear and exponential functions fit the data well. Economic evaluations of these responses show a minimum feed cost per kg live weight...
Amino Acid Imbalance Definition
This term was defined by Harper 1964 as a change in the pattern of amino acids in the diet precipitating depressions in food intake and growth, which are completely alleviated by supplementation with the first-limiting amino acid. The prerequisite for a limiting amino acid may be satisfied by the use of a suitably deficient protein such as gelatin, but more generally this condition may be fulfilled by the use of low-protein diets. The definition of imbalance was devised as a result of...
Tryptophan Isoleucine Valine and Arginine
A semipurified diet Table 13.2 based on AA-fortified maize gluten meal CGM was developed in our laboratory Peter et al., 2000 for use in studying the requirements for several AA. True digestibility of AA was determined in the high-protein CGM sample used Table 13.3 , and the same sample of CGM was used for all AA bioassays. Using 10.7 g kg-1 digestible lysine as a requirement reference point Han and Baker, 1991, 1993 , the CGM basal diet was fortified with essential AA so that all essential AA...
Valine assay
Quadratic P lt 0.01 responses in weight gain Fig. 13.6 and feed efficiency occurred when graded doses 5.1-10.6 g kg-1 of digestible valine were fed Baker et al., 2002 . The broken-line digestible requirement estimates were 7.44 and 7.43 g kg-1 for weight gain and feed efficiency, respectively. The valine requirement 7.44 g kg-1 ratioed to the lysine requirement 10.0 Dietary digestible isoleucine g kg-1 Fig. 13.5. Fitted broken-line and quadratic plots of 13-day weight gain as a function of true...
Sensitivity of the CNCPS to various inputs
Priorities for research and routine feed analysis procedures that need to be implemented depend on cost to benefit ratios and the procedures available to measure sensitive variables. There is little value in developing more complex models for amino acid balancing until the first limiting factors can be accurately predicted. This was demonstrated when measured duodenal flows from 80 diets were not predicted as accurately with the dynamic, low level aggregation rumen model of Baldwin et al....
Prediction of Diet Amino Acid Balances Within the Structure of the CNCPS
The definition of a model by Gill et al. 1989 describes the CNCPS an integrated set of equations and transfer coefficients that represent the various physiological functions in cattle and sheep. Included are predictions of tissue requirements maintenance, growth, pregnancy, lactation and tissue reserves , and supply of nutrients to meet requirements feed carbohydrate and protein fractions, their characteristic digestion and passage rates, microbial growth, intestinal digestion and metabolism of...
Quality of Manure
Manure is a mixture of excreta urine and faecal matter . It is composed of undigested dietary components, endogenous components and products from indigenous microorganisms and the biomass of those microorganisms. Some odorous volatile components OVC , short-chain volatile fatty acids VFA , and other volatile carbon-nitrogen and sulphur-containing compounds from microbial fermentation in the GI tract can be emitted immediately. Others are emitted at various times after excretion. Around 200 or...
Amino Acid Toxicity
Unique toxic effects may be precipitated on feeding excess quantities of individual amino acids by virtue of their particular structural or functional properties. Benevenga and Steele 1984 reviewed the evidence derived principally from observations with laboratory animals. The acute growth depressions caused by excesses of some individual amino acids may be accompanied by profound and specific lesions in organs and tissues. Toxicities may also be demonstrated in farm livestock, and Baker 1989...
Valine
The valine requirement values of fish are presented in Table 23.6. There is reasonable agreement between the values reported for the species studied, indicating that the requirement ranges from about 30 to 40 g kg-1 of dietary protein. Studies showed that serum valine levels in the channel catfish responded to valine intake in a manner similar to that described for isoleucine Wilson et al., 1980 . Table 23.5. Leucine requirements g kg-1 of protein of various fish species. Table 23.5. Leucine...
Assessment of Amino Acid Needs of Growing Cattle
Several factors make straightforward approaches to the study of amino acid utilization by growing ruminants unsatisfactory. For responses to a single amino acid to be measured, that amino acid must be the sole limiting factor. Thus, the amino acid of interest must be deficient, but other nutrients, including other amino acids, must be supplied in adequate or excess amounts. Due to the synthesis of microbial protein in the rumen, it is difficult to supply adequate amounts of energy to the animal...
Establishment of the Ideal Dietary Amino Acid Profile for Pigs
Basically, it would be expected that sow's milk, which can be considered to be optimized for suckling piglets during evolution, would also provide the weaned piglets with an ideal amino acid profile. This assumption is supported by the fact that the profile is very constant in sow's milk and apparently not influenced by the dietary composition Boisen, 1997 . Furthermore, this composition is very close to the amino acid composition in the body as well as in the deposited protein during growth...
Net Portaldrained Visceral Flux of Peptides
Measurements of peptide and amino acid and other nutrients absorption and metabolism by tissues of the portal-drained viscera PDV gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, spleen and omental fat can be obtained using chronic indwelling catheters in animals which allows for simultaneous sampling of arterial and venous blood draining the PDV, or sections of the PDV, and measuring blood flow through the same tissues Reynolds, 2001 . Net rates of peptide or amino acid release or removal by the PDV or...
Empirical methods
The empirical method most commonly used to determine amino acid responses in growing poultry involves the addition of graded supplements of the amino acid under test to a basal diet deficient in that amino acid D'Mello, 1982 . These graded additions are accomplished with the crystalline form of the amino acid. A number of criteria must be fulfilled for satisfactory results. It is imperative that the basal diet is sufficiently deficient in the amino acid under investigation and that graded doses...
Optimum ET Ratio for Growth and Protein Deposition
Soon after experiments with purified diets had been started in the early 1940s, it became apparent that use of essential amino acids as a sole source of dietary N did not promote normal growth of rats Kinsey and Grant, 1944 or chicks Hegsted, 1944 Luckey et al., 1947 and that, to attain maximum growth rate, it was necessary to supplement the mixture of essential amino acids with one or several non-essential amino acids or another source of non-specific nitrogen Rose et al., 1948 Frost and...
Effect of ET Ratio on Protein and Amino Acid Utilization
In studies with isonitrogenous diets, the estimates of optimum E T ratios required for protein deposition did not differ from those for protein utilization Sugahara and Ariyoshi, 1968 Wang and Fuller, 1989 Heger et al, 1987, 1998 Gotterbarm et al, 1998 Lenis et al., 1999 . However, when essential N was held constant and E T ratio was altered by changing total dietary N, a considerably lower E T ratio was needed for maximum N reten tion than for optimum N utilization. Thus in rats fed on diets...
Introduction 21
Amino acids have been an important component in the diet of animals throughout evolution. The carnivorous behaviour of animals such as the cat, ferret and to a lesser extent the dog is the likely reason for the specialized metabolism of these species we see today. It is well recognized that the cat's metabolism has adapted to the ingestion of animal tissues which is, unlike food from plants, devoid of carbohydrates and contains an excess of protein relative to energy Morris, 2001 . Adaptations...
Black J. L. Robards G. E And Thomas R. 1973. Australian Journal Of Agricultural
Adams, N.R., Liu, S.M., Briegel, J.R. and Greeff, J.C. 2000 Protein metabolism in skin and muscle of sheep selected for or against staple strength. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 51, 541-546. AFRC Technical Committee on Responses to Nutrients 1993 Energy and Protein Requirements of Ruminants. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Agricultural Research Council 1984 The Nutrient Requirements of Ruminant Livestock. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Slough, UK. Benevenga, N.J.,...
References 23
Aarnink, A.J.A. 1997 . Ammonia emission from houses for growing pigs as affected by pen design, indoor climate and behaviour. PhD thesis Agricultural University, Wageningen. Aletor. V.A., Ham id. I.L., Niess, E. and Pfeffer, E. 2000 Low-protein amino acid-supplemented diets in broiler chickens effects on performance, carcass characteristics, whole body composition and efficiency of nutrient utilization. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 80, 547-554. Baldwin, R.L., Calvert, G.C.,...
References 19
AFRC Agricultural and Food Research Council 1992 Nutritive requirements of ruminant animals Protein. Technical Committee on Responses to Nutrients, Report No. 9. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, Series B 62, 787-835. Bassett, J.M. 1975 Dietary and gastro intestinal control of hormones regulating carbohydrate metabolism in ruminants. In McDonald, I.W. and Warner, A.C.I, eds Digestion and Metabolism in the Ruminant. University of New England Publishing Unit, Armidale, pp. 383-398. BBSRC...
References 10
Agricultural Research Council 1981 The Nutrient Requirements of Pigs. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK, p 307. Bastianelli, D. and Sauvant, D. 1995 Modelling digestion and absorption in the pig. In Danfaer, A. and Lescoat, P. eds Proceedings of the IVth International Workshop on Modelling Nutrient Utilisation in Farm Animals. National Institute of Animal Sciences, Foulum, Denmark, pp. 107-115. Birkett, S.H. and de Lange, C.F.M. 2001 Limitations of conventional models and a...
Second Edition
Formerly of the Scottish Agricultural College Edinburgh, UK CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International CABI Publishing CAB International Wallingford CABI Publishing 44 Brattle Street 4th Floor Tel 44 0 1491 832111 Fax 44 0 1491 833508 E-mail cabi cabi.org Tel 1 617 395 4056 Fax 1 617 354 6875 E-mail cabi-nao cabi.org CAB International 2003. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying,...
References 25
Andrews, F.J. and Griffiths, R.D. 2002 Glutamine essential for immune nutrition in the critically ill. British Journal of Nutrition 87, S3-S8. Anthony, J.C., Anthony, T.G., Kimball, S.R., Vary, T.C. and Jefferson, L.S. 2000a Orally administered leucine stimulates protein synthesis in skeletal muscle of postabsorptive rats in association with increased eIF4F formation. Journal of Nutrition 130, 139-145. Anthony, J.C., Yoshizawa, F., Anthony, T.G., Vary, T.C., Jefferson, L.S. and Kimball, S.R....
Glutamine
Since the first edition of this book considerable advances have been made on the metabolism of glutamine, justifying an entire symposium on the subject, with the proceedings appearing in 2001. A supplement on immunonutrition published in 2002 also addressed the role of glutamine. The compilation in Table 26.6 gives an insight into the diverse functions and biochemical linkages of glutamine. Although the bias is distinctly Table 26.6. Glutamine metabolism a summary of titles selected from the...
Improving Protein Efficiency
Reducing the contamination of soils, water and air caused by excessive build-up of animal wastes is now the priority of many nutritionists, land managers and lawmakers A recent evaluation of dairy farms in the eastern US states indicated that dairy farmers over feed protein by 7 , resulting in a 16 increase in urinary N excretion Jonker et ai, 2002 . The transfer of current nutritional information from research scientist to nutritionist to farmer may be the problem, but more than likely it...
Applications of the CNCPS model
One of the current concerns about academic research is that often it is not used by those who might benefit most from it. In part, this is because our usual products, journal articles, are not usually read by practitioners. When research data are incorporated into the CNCPS model, the information reaches the end-user, producers and nutrition consultants, quickly and in a form that is immediately useful. When the CNCPS model predictions do not agree with field observations, we usually get...
Difficulties in Defining Essential to Nonessential Amino Acid Ratio
Most of the disparity between published estimates of the optimum essential to non-essential amino acid ratios is attributable to the different ways of expressing the relations between the two amino acid groups, different classifications of amino acids with regard to their essentiality, and different methodological approaches. These issues are briefly discussed below. Expressing the relations between essential and non-essential amino acids There are various ways of expressing the relationships...
Free Aoac Methods For Analysis Of Animal Feed Premix
Albala-Hurtado, S., Bover-Cid, S., Izquierdo-Pulido, M., Veciana-Nogues, M.T. and Vidal-Carou, M.C. 1997 Determination of available lysine in infant milk formulae by high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A 778, 235-241. Alb n, D.M., Wubben, J.E. and Gabert, V.M. 2000a Effect of hydrolysis time on the determination of amino acids in samples of soybean products with ion-exchange chromatography or precolumn derivatization with phenylisothiocyanate. Journal of...
Wet Chemical Analysis Sample preparation
The determination of amino acids requires the hydrolytic splitting of protein into its individual building blocks, which behave very differently during hydrolysis due to the functionality of the R side group. Asparagine and glutamine lose the amide residue in the side group and form aspartate and glutamate, respectively. The resulting ammonia can be determined chromatographically, but amino acid analysis always determines the sum Asx or Glx of these amino acid pairs. Tryptophan is largely...
References 7
Aoyama. Y., Ishikawa, T., Amano, N. and Yoshida, A 1992 Lipid accumulation in the liver of rats fed a soy protein isolate diet with excess cystine, and its prevention by methionine or choline. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 56, 656-659. Baker, D.H. 1994 Utilization of precursors for l-amino acids. In D'Mello, J.P.F. ed. Amino Acids in Farm Animal Nutrition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 37-61. Baker, D.H., Becker, D.E., Norton, H.W., Jensen, A.H. and Harmon, B.G. 1966...
References
Adeola, O. 1995 Dietary lysine and threonine utilization by young pigs efficiency for carcass growth. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 75, 445-452. Anthony, J.C., Anthony, T.G., Kimball, S.R., Vary, T.C. and Jefferson, L.S. 2000a Orally administered leucine stimulates protein synthesis in skeletal muscle of postabsorptive rats in association with increased eIF4F formation. Journal of Nutrition 130, 139-145. Anthony, J.C., Yoshizawa, F., Anthony, T.G., Vary, T.C., Jefferson, L.S and Kimball,...
The Limiting Amino Acid Concept and Modelling
It is not clear whether the relationship between AA supply and protein synthesis is simply a substrate effect or a reflection of regulatory events. Although acyl-tRNA are normally saturated in other tissues at prevailing intracellular AA concentrations Shenoy and Rogers, 1978 , the same does not appear to be the case for the udder Elska et ai, 1971 . If the tRNA-acylating enzymes are not saturated with AA under normal conditions, then provision of additional AA should result in an increase in...
References 18
AFRC Agricultural and Food Research Council 1993 Energy and Protein Requirements of Ruminants. An Advisory Manual Prepared by the AFRC Technical Committee of Responses to Nutrients. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Annen, E.L., McGuire, M.A., Hanson, T.W. and Bauman, D.E. 1998 Milk protein production in cows subjected to abomasal infusion of branched-chain amino acids BCAA and a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. Journal of Dairy Science 81 Suppl. 1 , 354. Backwell, F.R.C., Bequette, B.J.,...
References 20
Ainslie, S.J., Fox, D.G., Perry, T.C., Ketchen, D.J. and Barry, M.C. 1993 Predicting amino acid adequacy of diets fed to Holstein steers. Journal of Animal Science 71, 1312-1319. Allison, M.J. and Bryant, M.P. 1963 Biosynthesis of branched-chain fatty acids by rumen bacteria. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 101, 269. Allison, M.J., Bryant, M.P. and Doestch, R.N. 1962 Studies on the metabolic function of branched-chain volatile fatty acids, growth factors for ruminococci. I....
References 8
AmiPig 2000 Ileal standardized digestibility of amino acids in feedstuffs for pigs. AFZ, Ajinomoto Eurolysine, Aventis Animal Nutrition. INRA 1TCF. France. ARC 1981 The Nutrient Requirements of Pigs. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau. Farnham Royal. UK. Batterham, E.S. 1994 Ileal digestibilities of amino acids in feedstuffs for pigs. In D'Mello, J.P.F. ed. Amino Acids in Farm Animal Nutrition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 113-131. Black, J. 2000 Amino acid and energy requirements. In...
Rumen fungi
The anaerobic fungi are an important component of the cellulolytic flora of the rumen Orpin and Joblin, 1997 . Ruminal fungi, unlike ruminal cellulolytic bacteria, are known to be proteolytic Wallace and Joblin, 1985 , which probably favours the disruption of the proteinaceous layer that prevents cellulolytic bacteria from gaining access to the secondary cell wall Engles and Brice, 1985 . Rumen fungi are able to grow in media lacking preformed amino acids and therefore must be able to form the...
Introduction 23
At least quantitatively a great deal is known about the digestion of food, the uptake of amino acids over time, their subsequent metabolism and the rate of accumulation of protein in body tissues Moughan, 1999 . However, it is difficult to measure the variation in the processes involved in protein digestion and protein metabolism. These processes are difficult to measure, e.g. protein synthesis and protein breakdown Baldwin et al., 1994 . Knowledge of variation would give possibilities to...
Milkfish Amino Acid Requirements
Agricultural Research Council 1981 Protein and amino acid requirements. In The Nutrient Requirements of Pigs. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Slough, pp. 67-124. Akiyama, D.M. 1986 The development of a purified diet and nutritional requirement of lysine in penaeid shrimp. PhD dissertation, Texas A amp M University, College Station, Texas. Akiyama, T. and Arai, S. 1993 Amino acid requirements of chum salmon fry and supplementation of amino acid to diet. In Collie, M.R. and...