references 16
1. Bailey L, Gregory J 2006 Folate. In Bowman B, Russell R eds Present knowledge in nutrition, 9th edn. ILSI Press, Washington, D.C. pp 278-301 2. Tamura T, Picciano MF 2006 Folate and human reproduction. Am J Clin Nutr 83 993-1016 3. Scholl TO, Johnson WG 2000 Folic acid influence on the outcome of pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 71 Suppl 1295S-303S 4. Physiology in pregnancy 1993 In Cunningham F, MacDonald P, Fant N, Leveno K, Gilstrap L eds Williams obstetrics. Appleton amp Lange, Norwalk, Conn.,...
references 17
1. World Health Organization 2001 Global Strategies for Infant and Young Child Feeding. Resolution Passes at Fifty-fourth World Health Assembly 9 May 2001 2. American Academy of Pediatrics 2005 Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 115 496-506 3. American Academy of Pediatrics 2004 Breastfeeding. In Kleinman RE ed Pediatric nutrition handbook, 5th edn. Elk Grove, Ill., pp 55-86 4. Anderson JW, Johnstone BM, Remley DT 1999 Breast-feeding and cognitive development a metaanalysis. Am...
Daniel M Herron and Amy Fleishman
Summary The dramatic increase in the incidence of obesity has resulted in an overwhelming increase in the number of bariatric, or weight loss, operations performed in the United States. These operations induce long-term weight loss through a combination of volume restriction and malabsorption. As a result, bariatric surgery patients may suffer from nutritional deficiencies over the long term and need to be followed extremely closely before, during, and after pregnancy. Bariatric patients are...
Energy and Macronutrients
Energy needs increase in the last two trimesters to support the maternal and fetal products of pregnancy as well as spare protein to build these new tissues. Weight gain serves as a proxy indicator that these tissues have developed normally see Chap. 2, Optimal Weight Gain . What is unique in AN is the controlled intake of food energy in those with restricting type. Intakes of 200-700 kcal per day, typical of an individual with restricting-type AN, are simply inadequate to supply the energy...
references 13
1. Picciano MF 2003 Pregnancy and lactation physiological adjustments, nutritional requirements and the role of dietary supplements. J Nutr 1997S-2002S 2. Subcommittee on Dietary Intake and Nutrient Supplements During Pregnancy 1990 In Nutrition during pregnancy. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 3. Yu SM, Keppel KG, Singh GK, Kessel W 1996 Preconceptional and prenatal multivitamin-mineral supplement use in the 1988 National Maternal Infant Health Survey. Am J Public Health 86 240-242 4....
references 2
1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 2002 Exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period ACOG Committee Opinion No. 267. Obstet Gynecol 99 171-173 2. Blair SN, Kohl HW, Paffernberges RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW 1989 Physical fitness and all-cause mortality a prospective study of healthy men and women. J Am Med Assoc 262 2395-23401 3. Bouchard C, Shephard RL, Stephens RL, Stephens T eds 1994 Physical activity fitness and health international proceeding and...
references 4
1. Hedley AA, Ogden CL, Johnson Dl, Carroll MD, Curin LR, Flegal KM 2004 Prevalence of overweight and obesity among US children, adolescents, and adults, 1999-2002. J Am Med Assoc 291 2847-2850 2. Kim SY, Dietz PM, England L, Morrow B, Callaghan WM 2007 Trends in prepregnancy obesity in nine states, 1993-2003. Obesity 25 986-993 3. Institute of Medicine 1990 Nutrition During Pregnancy. Part I. Weight Gain. Part II. Dietary Supplements. Committee on Nutritional Status during Pregnancy and...
references 11
1. American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada 2004 Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada nutrition intervention in the care of persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Am Diet Assoc 104 1425-1440 2. Seguardo AC, Miranda SD, Latorre M 2003 Evaluation of the care of women living with HIV AIDS in Sao Paulo, Brazil. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 17 85-93 3. Tinkle MB, Amaya MA, Tamayo OW 1992 HIV disease and pregnancy, Part 1. Epidemiology,...
references 9
1. American Diabetes Association 2007 Total prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes. Available at 2. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Sutton PD, Venture SJ, Menacker F, Munson ML 2004 Births final data for 2002. Natl Vital Stat Rep 52 1-113 3. American Diabetes Association 2004 Position statement. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 27 Suppl 1 S88-S90 4. Hadden DR 1998 A historical perspective on gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 21 Suppl 2 B3-B4 5. Duncan JM 1982 On puerperal diabetes. Trans...
references 21
1. Yip R 2001 Iron. In Bowman B, Russell R eds Present knowledge in nutrition, 8 edn. ILSI, Washington, D.C. 2. Allen LH 2000 Anemia and iron deficiency effects on pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr 71 1280S-1284S 3. WHO 2001 Iron deficiency anemia assessment, prevention and control a guide for programme managers. UNICEF, United Nations University, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland 4. Galloway R 2003 Anemia prevention and control what works. USAID, The World Bank, UNICEF, PAHO, FAO, The Micronutrient...
Maternal Anemia and Maternal Mortality
The relationship between maternal anemia and the risk of mortality have been examined in two previous reviews 13, 14 . No randomized controlled trials to date provide data on the impact of iron supplementation on maternal mortality as the outcome. The likelihood of such trials being conducted in the future is low, mainly due to ethical and feasibility considerations. Observational studies conducted in Africa and Asia, primarily among pregnant women presenting at hospitals, provide evidence for...
references 3
1. Ahlqvist M, Wirfalt E 2000 Beliefs concerning dietary practices during pregnancy and lactation. A qualitative study among Iranian women residing in Sweden. Scand J Caring Sci 14 105-111 2. Ebomoyi E 1988 Nutritional beliefs among rural Nigerian mothers. Ecol Food Nutr 22 43-52 3. Frankel B 1977 Childbirth in the ghetto. R amp E Research, San Francisco, Calif. 4. Kay MA 1977 Health and illness in a Mexican-American barrio. In Spicer EH ed Ethnic Medicine in the Southwest. University of...
Screening and Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Two approaches are used to screen and diagnose for GDM, the two-step and the one-step method 3 . The two-step method is used primarily in the United States. The first step is the oral glucose challenge test OGCT . A solution containing 50 g glucose is consumed, and the plasma glucose level is checked 1 h later. If the test is gt 140 mg dl, the second step, the oral glucose tolerance test OGTT is administered after 3 days of unrestricted carbohydrates at least 150 g day and unlimited physical...
Amniotic Fluid
The environment in which the fetus lives, the amnion, can indeed be odorous. Its odor can indicate certain disease states, such as maple syrup disease or trimethylaminuria 36, 37 . In 1985, a case study report was published describing four infants who presented with peculiar body odors on delivery. Although each infant tested negative for syndromes that are associated with peculiar body odors, all were born to women who had ingested a spicy meal e.g., cumin, fenugreek, curry prior to delivery...
Nutritional Assessment
A baseline assessment should be made at the first prenatal visit and follow-up care should be provided at subsequent visits. The initial nutritional assessment should include baseline anthropometric measurement such as weight, height, BMI height cm kg m2 , and mid-upper arm circumference MUAC 23 . The BMI will indicate whether the woman is at an appropriate weight or is underweight or overweight at onset of pregnancy. This information will enable the provider to make specific weight gain...
consequences of iron deficiency and anemia during pregnancy
Considerable work has been done to understand the functional consequences of iron deficiency and anemia during pregnancy for both maternal and infant outcomes 18-20 . The conceptual framework that shows the potential pathways by which iron deficiency during pregnancy may influence subsequent outcomes is shown in Fig. 22.4. However, most of the research has been conducted in developed country settings, where the problem is less severe and therefore less likely to detect any effects. Another...
Ann Reed Mangels
Summary A vegetarian diet, defined as an eating style that avoids meat, fish, and poultry, can be healthful and nutritionally adequate for a pregnant woman. Some vegetarians, called vegans, avoid dairy products and eggs as well as meat, fish, and poultry. Vegan diets can also be healthful and nutritionally adequate for pregnancy. Vegetarian diets can provide numerous long-term health benefits including a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, some forms of cancer, and hypertension. Key nutrients...
folate requirements during pregnancy
Dietary reference intakes DRIs are recommendations for nutrient intakes used to plan and assess the adequacy of diets for healthy people 7 . The DRIs include a number of reference values including Estimated Average Requirement, Recommended Dietary Allowance RDA , Adequate Intake, and Tolerable Upper Intake Level. For the purposes of planning and assessing a diet for a healthy individual, clinicians should generally utilize the RDA 7 . The RDA for folate for pregnant women is the average daily...
Katherine Kunstel
Summary Women are among the fastest growing populations of those infected with HIV and AIDS, and most infected women are of childbearing age. Women who are both HIV-positive and pregnant are faced with a double burden both in terms of immunity and nutrition. The HIV-infected pregnant woman is at increased nutritional risk compared to the HIV-uninfected pregnant woman. HIV-infected pregnant women tend to gain less weight during pregnancy. Macronutrient needs are increased to cover the increased...
management of preeclampsia
Childbirth is the cure for preeclampsia as the disease process usually resolves within days of delivery. Delivery is always preferable from the perspective of maternal health. However, decisions on induction of labor or cesarean delivery must include a consideration of prematurity-related neonatal risks and the severity of the preeclampsia. Women with mild preeclampsia should be carefully followed until they are close to term and delivered at 37-39 weeks 30 . Women with severe preeclampsia may...